The preceding sections of this article give some idea of the pervasiveness of computer technology in society. Many products used in everyday life now incorporate computer systems: programmable, computer-controlled VCRs in the living room, programmable microwave ovens in the kitchen, programmable thermostats to control heating and cooling systems—the list seems endless. This section will survey a few of the major areas where computers currently have—or will likely soon have—a major impact on society. As noted below, computer technology not only has solved problems but also has created some, including a certain amount of culture shock as individuals attempt to deal with the new technology. A major role of computer science has been to alleviate such problems, mainly by making computer systems cheaper, faster, more reliable, and easier to use.
Computers in the workplace
Computers are omnipresent in the workplace. Word processors—computer software packages that simplify the creation and modification of textual documents—have largely replaced the typewriter. Electronic mail has made it easy to transmit textual messages (possibly containing embedded picture and sound files) worldwide, using computers, cellular telephones, and specially equipped televisions via telephone, satellite, and cable television networks. Office automation has become the term for linking workstations, printers, database systems, and other tools by means of a local area network (LAN). An eventual goal of office automation has been termed the “paperless office.” Although such changes ultimately make office work much more efficient, they have not been without cost in purchasing and frequently upgrading the necessary hardware and software and in training workers to use the new technology.
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is a relatively new technology arising from the application of many computer science subdisciplines to support the manufacturing enterprise. The technology of CIM emphasizes that all aspects of manufacturing should be not only computerized as much as possible but also linked into an integrated whole via a computer communication network. For example, the design engineer’s workstation should be linked into the overall system so that design specifications and manufacturing instructions may be sent automatically to the shop floor. The inventory databases should be linked in as well, so product inventories may be incremented automatically and supply inventories decremented as manufacturing proceeds. An automated inspection system (or a manual inspection station supplied with online terminal entry) should be linked to a quality-control system that maintains a database of quality information and alerts the manager if quality is deteriorating and possibly even provides a diagnosis as to the source of any problems that arise. Automatically tracking the flow of products from station to station on the factory floor allows an analysis program to identify bottlenecks and recommend replacement of faulty equipment. In short, CIM has the potential to enable manufacturers to build cheaper, higher quality products and thus improve their competitiveness. Implementing CIM is initially costly, of course, and progress in carrying out this technology has been slowed not only by its cost but also by the lack of standardized interfaces between the various CIM components and by the slow acceptance of standardized communication protocols to support integration. Although the ideal of CIM is perhaps just beyond reach at the present time, manufacturers are now able to improve their operations by, for example, linking robot controllers to mainframes for easy and correct downloading of revised robot instructions. Also available are elaborate software packages that simplify the building of databases for such applications as inventories, personnel statistics, and quality control and that incorporate tools for data analysis and decision support.
Electronic banking
The banking business has been revolutionized by computer technology. Deposits and withdrawals are instantly logged into a customer’s account, which is perhaps stored on a remote computer. Computer-generated monthly statements are unlikely to contain any errors unless they arise during manual entry of check amounts. The technology of electronic funds transfer, supported by computer networking, allows the amount of a grocery bill to be immediately deducted from the customer’s bank account and transferred to that of the grocery store. Similarly, networking allows individuals to obtain cash instantly and almost worldwide by simply stepping up to an automated teller machine (ATM) and providing the proper card and personal identification number (popularly known as a PIN).
The downside of this technology is the potential for security problems. Intruders can see packets traveling on a network (e.g., being transported via a satellite link) and can perhaps interpret them (if not carefully encrypted) to obtain confidential information on financial transactions. Network access to personal accounts has the potential to let intruders not only see how much money an individual has but also to transfer some of it elsewhere.
Retail
Computer technology has had a significant impact on retail stores. All but the smallest shops have replaced the old-fashioned cash register with a terminal linked to a computer system. Some terminals require that the clerk type in the code for the item, but most checkout counters include a bar-code scanner, a device that directly reads into the computer the Universal Product Code (UPC) printed on each package. Cash-register receipts can then include brief descriptions of the items purchased (by fetching them from the computer database), and the purchase information is also relayed back to the computer to cause an immediate adjustment in the inventory data. The inventory system can easily alert the manager when the supply of some item drops below a specified threshold. In the case of retail chains linked by networks, the order for a new supply of an item may be automatically generated and sent electronically to the supply warehouse. In a less extensively automated arrangement, the manager can send in the order electronically by a dial-up link to the supplier’s computer. These developments have made shopping much more convenient. The checkout process is faster, checkout lines are shorter, and the desired item is more likely to be in stock. In addition, cash-register receipts contain much more information than a simple list of item prices; many receipts now include discount coupons based on the specific items purchased by the shopper. If there is a downside, it is the need for shoppers to adjust psychologically to not seeing prices on the packages and to the feeling that perhaps the computer is overcharging (as indeed can happen when advertised sale prices are somehow not entered into the system).
